Theatre Is Unique Among the Arts in That It Focuses on

Collaborative form of performing fine art

Theatre or theater ^[a] is a collaborative form of performing fine art that uses live performers, usually actors or actresses, to nowadays the feel of a existent or imagined event before a live audition in a specific place, oftentimes a stage. The performers may communicate this feel to the audition through combinations of gesture, oral communication, song, music, and dance. Elements of art, such every bit painted scenery and stagecraft such as lighting are used to enhance the physicality, presence and immediacy of the feel.^[one] The specific place of the performance is as well named by the word "theatre" as derived from the Ancient Greek θέατρον (théatron, "a place for viewing"), itself from θεάομαι (theáomai, "to see", "to lookout", "to discover").

Mod Western theatre comes, in large mensurate, from the theatre of ancient Greece, from which information technology borrows technical terminology, classification into genres, and many of its themes, stock characters, and plot elements. Theatre creative person Patrice Pavis defines theatricality, theatrical language, stage writing and the specificity of theatre as synonymous expressions that differentiate theatre from the other performing arts, literature and the arts in general.^{[2] [b]}

Modern theatre includes performances of plays and musical theatre. The fine art forms of ballet and opera are likewise theatre and use many conventions such as acting, costumes and staging. They were influential to the development of musical theatre; encounter those articles for more than information.

History of theatre [edit]

Classical and Hellenistic Greece [edit]

A depiction of actors playing the roles of a principal (correct) and his slave (left) in a Greek phlyax play, circa 350/340 BCE

The city-land of Athens is where western theatre originated.^{[3] [4] [v] [c]} Information technology was office of a broader civilisation of theatricality and performance in classical Greece that included festivals, religious rituals, politics, law, athletics and gymnastics, music, poetry, weddings, funerals, and symposia.^{[6] [5] [vii] [8] [d]}

Participation in the city-country's many festivals—and mandatory attendance at the City Dionysia as an audition member (or even as a participant in the theatrical productions) in particular—was an important part of citizenship.^[x] Civic participation besides involved the evaluation of the rhetoric of orators evidenced in performances in the police force-court or political associates, both of which were understood as analogous to the theatre and increasingly came to absorb its dramatic vocabulary.^{[11] [12]} The Greeks besides developed the concepts of dramatic criticism and theatre compages.^{[xiii] [14] [15]} Actors were either amateur or at best semi-professional.^[16] The theatre of ancient Hellenic republic consisted of three types of drama: tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play.^[17]

The origins of theatre in aboriginal Greece, according to Aristotle (384–322 BCE), the commencement theoretician of theatre, are to be found in the festivals that honoured Dionysus. The performances were given in semi-circular auditoria cut into hillsides, capable of seating x,000–20,000 people. The stage consisted of a dancing flooring (orchestra), dressing room and scene-building surface area (skene). Since the words were the nearly important role, good acoustics and clear delivery were paramount. The actors (ever men) wore masks appropriate to the characters they represented, and each might play several parts.^[18]

Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving grade of tragedy—is a type of trip the light fantastic toe-drama that formed an important role of the theatrical civilization of the city-state.^{[3] [4] [5] [19] [twenty] [e]} Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, information technology flowered during the 5th century BCE (from the end of which it began to spread throughout the Greek world), and continued to exist popular until the kickoff of the Hellenistic period.^{[22] [23] [4] [f]}

No tragedies from the 6th century BCE and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in during the 5th century BCE have survived.^{[25] [26] [chiliad]} Nosotros have complete texts extant by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.^{[27] [h]} The origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE it was institutionalised in competitions (agon) held as part of festivities celebrating Dionysus (the god of vino and fertility).^{[28] [29]} Equally contestants in the City Dionysia'southward competition (the most prestigious of the festivals to stage drama) playwrights were required to present a tetralogy of plays (though the individual works were not necessarily connected by story or theme), which normally consisted of 3 tragedies and one satyr play.^{[xxx] [31] [i]} The performance of tragedies at the Metropolis Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BCE; official records (didaskaliai) brainstorm from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced.^{[32] [30] [j]}

Most Athenian tragedies dramatise events from Greek mythology, though The Persians—which stages the Persian response to news of their military defeat at the Boxing of Salamis in 480 BCE—is the notable exception in the surviving drama.^{[30] [one thousand]} When Aeschylus won first prize for it at the Metropolis Dionysia in 472 BCE, he had been writing tragedies for more than 25 years, yet its tragic treatment of recent history is the earliest example of drama to survive.^{[30] [34]} More than 130 years later, the philosopher Aristotle analysed fifth-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving piece of work of dramatic theory—his Poetics (c. 335 BCE).

Athenian one-act is conventionally divided into 3 periods, "Old Comedy", "Middle Comedy", and "New Comedy". Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the eleven surviving plays of Aristophanes, while Middle Comedy is largely lost (preserved merely in relatively curt fragments in authors such as Athenaeus of Naucratis). New One-act is known primarily from the substantial papyrus fragments of Menander. Aristotle divers comedy as a representation of laughable people that involves some kind of blunder or ugliness that does not crusade hurting or disaster.^[fifty]

In addition to the categories of comedy and tragedy at the City Dionysia, the festival also included the Satyr Play. Finding its origins in rural, agricultural rituals dedicated to Dionysus, the satyr play somewhen found its fashion to Athens in its most well-known form. Satyr's themselves were tied to the god Dionysus as his loyal woodland companions, often engaging in drunken revelry and mischief at his side. The satyr play itself was classified every bit tragicomedy, erring on the side of the more modern burlesque traditions of the early on twentieth century. The plotlines of the plays were typically concerned with the dealings of the pantheon of Gods and their involvement in man affairs, backed by the chorus of Satyrs. Still, co-ordinate to Webster, satyr actors did not always perform typical satyr actions and would break from the acting traditions assigned to the character type of a mythical woods creature.^[35]

Roman theatre [edit]

Mosaic depicting masked actors in a play: two women consult a "witch"

Western theatre developed and expanded considerably under the Romans. The Roman historian Livy wrote that the Romans start experienced theatre in the fourth century BCE, with a operation by Etruscan actors.^[36] Beacham argues that they had been familiar with "pre-theatrical practices" for some time earlier that recorded contact.^[37] The theatre of aboriginal Rome was a thriving and diverse art form, ranging from festival performances of street theatre, nude dancing, and acrobatics, to the staging of Plautus's broadly appealing situation comedies, to the high-style, verbally elaborate tragedies of Seneca. Although Rome had a native tradition of operation, the Hellenization of Roman culture in the 3rd century BCE had a profound and energizing effect on Roman theatre and encouraged the development of Latin literature of the highest quality for the stage. The but surviving plays from the Roman Empire are ten dramas attributed to Lucius Annaeus Seneca (four BCE–65 CE), the Corduba-born Stoic philosopher and tutor of Nero.^[38]

Indian theatre [edit]

Koothu is an ancient course of performing art that originated in early on Tamilakam.

The primeval-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from the 1st century CE.^{[39] [40]} The wealth of archeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the being of a tradition of theatre.^[41] The ancient Vedas (hymns from between 1500 and 1000 BCE that are among the earliest examples of literature in the earth) contain no hint of it (although a small number are composed in a class of dialogue) and the rituals of the Vedic menstruation practise not appear to have adult into theatre.^[41] The Mahābhāṣya by Patañjali contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama.^[42] This treatise on grammar from 140 BCE provides a feasible date for the ancestry of theatre in India.^[42]

The major source of bear witness for Sanskrit theatre is A Treatise on Theatre (Nātyaśāstra), a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BCE to 200 CE) and whose authorship is attributed to Bharata Muni. The Treatise is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the aboriginal globe. Information technology addresses acting, dance, music, dramatic structure, architecture, costuming, make-up, props, the organization of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a mythological account of the origin of theatre.^[42] In doing so, it provides indications about the nature of bodily theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre was performed on sacred ground past priests who had been trained in the necessary skills (dance, music, and recitation) in a [hereditary procedure]. Its aim was both to educate and to entertain.

Under the patronage of purple courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were directed by a stage director (sutradhara), who may also take acted.^{[39] [42]} This job was idea of as being analogous to that of a puppeteer—the literal significant of "sutradhara" is "holder of the strings or threads".^[42] The performers were trained rigorously in song and physical technique.^[43] There were no prohibitions confronting female performers; companies were all-male, all-female, and of mixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, however, and were thought better suited to women. Some performers played characters their ain historic period, while others played ages unlike from their ain (whether younger or older). Of all the elements of theatre, the Treatise gives most attending to acting (abhinaya), which consists of two styles: realistic (lokadharmi) and conventional (natyadharmi), though the major focus is on the latter.^{[43] [grand]}

Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of Sanskrit literature.^[39] It utilised stock characters, such equally the hero (nayaka), heroine (nayika), or clown (vidusaka). Actors may have specialised in a particular type. Kālidāsa in the 1st century BCE, is arguably considered to be ancient India's greatest Sanskrit dramatist. Three famous romantic plays written past Kālidāsa are the Mālavikāgnimitram (Mālavikā and Agnimitra), Vikramuurvashiiya (Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi), and Abhijñānaśākuntala (The Recognition of Shakuntala). The last was inspired by a story in the Mahabharata and is the nearly famous. Information technology was the first to be translated into English and German. Śakuntalā (in English translation) influenced Goethe's Faust (1808–1832).^[39]

The next peachy Indian dramatist was Bhavabhuti (c. 7th century CE). He is said to take written the following 3 plays: Malati-Madhava, Mahaviracharita and Uttar Ramacharita. Among these three, the last two cover between them the entire ballsy of Ramayana. The powerful Indian emperor Harsha (606–648) is credited with having written iii plays: the one-act Ratnavali, Priyadarsika, and the Buddhist drama Nagananda.

Chinese theatre [edit]

Public functioning in Jade Dragon Snowfall Mount Open up Air Theatre

The Tang dynasty is sometimes known equally "The Age of grand Entertainments". During this era, Ming Huang formed an acting school known as The Pear Garden to produce a form of drama that was primarily musical. That is why actors are normally called "Children of the Pear Garden." During the dynasty of Empress Ling, shadow puppetry first emerged equally a recognized form of theatre in China. At that place were ii distinct forms of shadow puppetry, Pekingese (northern) and Cantonese (southern). The two styles were differentiated past the method of making the puppets and the positioning of the rods on the puppets, every bit opposed to the blazon of play performed past the puppets. Both styles generally performed plays depicting swell chance and fantasy, rarely was this very stylized grade of theatre used for political propaganda.

Cantonese shadow puppets were the larger of the 2. They were congenital using thick leather which created more substantial shadows. Symbolic colour was besides very prevalent; a black face represented honesty, a red one bravery. The rods used to control Cantonese puppets were attached perpendicular to the puppets' heads. Thus, they were not seen by the audition when the shadow was created. Pekingese puppets were more fragile and smaller. They were created out of sparse, translucent leather (normally taken from the abdomen of a ass). They were painted with vibrant paints, thus they cast a very colorful shadow. The thin rods which controlled their movements were attached to a leather collar at the cervix of the boob. The rods ran parallel to the bodies of the puppet and then turned at a ninety degree angle to connect to the cervix. While these rods were visible when the shadow was bandage, they laid outside the shadow of the puppet; thus they did non interfere with the appearance of the effigy. The rods fastened at the necks to facilitate the utilise of multiple heads with i trunk. When the heads were not being used, they were stored in a muslin book or fabric lined box. The heads were always removed at night. This was in keeping with the old superstition that if left intact, the puppets would come to life at night. Some puppeteers went and so far as to store the heads in ane volume and the bodies in another, to further reduce the possibility of reanimating puppets. Shadow puppetry is said to have reached its highest point of artistic development in the eleventh century earlier becoming a tool of the government.

In the Song dynasty, at that place were many popular plays involving acrobatics and music. These developed in the Yuan dynasty into a more than sophisticated form known as zaju, with a four- or v-act structure. Yuan drama spread across Communist china and diversified into numerous regional forms, one of the all-time known of which is Peking Opera which is still popular today.

Xiangsheng is a certain traditional Chinese comedic performance in the forms of monologue or dialogue.

Indonesian theatre [edit]

In Indonesia, theatre performances take become an important part of local civilisation, theatre performances in Indonesia take been developed for thousands of years. Well-nigh of Republic of indonesia'southward oldest theatre forms are linked directly to local literary traditions (oral and written). The prominent puppet theatres — wayang golek (wooden rod-puppet play) of the Sundanese and wayang kulit (leather shadow-boob play) of the Javanese and Balinese—draw much of their repertoire from indigenized versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. These tales besides provide source textile for the wayang wong (human theatre) of Java and Bali, which uses actors. Some wayang golek performances, all the same, also nowadays Muslim stories, chosen menak.^{[44] [45]} Wayang is an aboriginal form of storytelling that renowned for its elaborate boob/homo and complex musical styles.^[46] The earliest evidence is from the late 1st millennium CE, in medieval-era texts and archeological sites.^[47] The oldest known tape that concerns wayang is from the 9th century. Effectually 840 Advertisement an Old Javanese (Kawi) inscriptions called Jaha Inscriptions issued by Maharaja Sri Lokapalaform Medang Kingdom in Primal Java mentions iii sorts of performers: atapukan, aringgit, and abanol. Aringgit means Wayang puppet bear witness, Atapukan means Mask trip the light fantastic bear witness, and abanwal means joke fine art. Ringgit is described in an 11th-century Javanese verse form as a leather shadow effigy.

Mail service-classical theatre in the Due west [edit]

Theatre took on many culling forms in the West between the 15th and 19th centuries, including commedia dell'arte and melodrama. The general tendency was away from the poetic drama of the Greeks and the Renaissance and toward a more naturalistic prose manner of dialogue, especially following the Industrial Revolution.^[48]

Theatre took a big suspension during 1642 and 1660 in England considering of the Puritan Interregnum. Viewing theatre as sinful, the Puritans ordered the closure of London theatres in 1642.^[50] On 24 January 1643, the actors protested confronting the ban by writing a pamphlet titled The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses.^[51] This stagnant menstruum ended once Charles II came back to the throne in 1660 in the Restoration. Theatre (amid other arts) exploded, with influence from French culture, since Charles had been exiled in France in the years previous to his reign.

In 1660, two companies were licensed to perform, the Duke's Company and the King's Company. Performances were held in converted buildings, such as Lisle'southward Tennis Court. The kickoff West Stop theatre, known as Theatre Purple in Covent Garden, London, was designed past Thomas Killigrew and congenital on the site of the present Theatre Majestic, Drury Lane.^[49]

1 of the big changes was the new theatre business firm. Instead of the type of the Elizabethan era, such equally the Globe Theatre, round with no place for the actors to really prep for the side by side human activity and with no "theatre manners", the theatre house became transformed into a identify of refinement, with a phase in front and stadium seating facing it. Since seating was no longer all the way around the stage, it became prioritized—some seats were obviously improve than others. The king would have the best seat in the house: the very middle of the theatre, which got the widest view of the stage as well every bit the best way to run across the bespeak of view and vanishing point that the stage was constructed effectually. Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg was i of the most influential set designers of the fourth dimension because of his apply of floor space and scenery.

Because of the turmoil before this time, there was all the same some controversy about what should and should non be put on the stage. Jeremy Collier, a preacher, was one of the heads in this motility through his slice A Curt View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Phase. The beliefs in this paper were mainly held past not-theatre goers and the remainder of the Puritans and very religious of the time. The chief question was if seeing something immoral on phase affects beliefs in the lives of those who watch it, a controversy that is withal playing out today.^[52]

Billing for a British theatre in 1829

The seventeenth century had likewise introduced women to the stage, which was considered inappropriate before. These women were regarded as celebrities (likewise a newer concept, thanks to ideas on individualism that arose in the wake of Renaissance Humanism), but on the other paw, it was still very new and revolutionary that they were on the phase, and some said they were unladylike, and looked down on them. Charles Two did not like young men playing the parts of young women, then he asked that women play their own parts.^[53] Considering women were allowed on the stage, playwrights had more than leeway with plot twists, similar women dressing every bit men, and having narrow escapes from morally sticky situations as forms of comedy.

Comedies were full of the young and very much in vogue, with the storyline following their dearest lives: commonly a young roguish hero professing his love to the chaste and free minded heroine near the end of the play, much like Sheridan's The School for Scandal. Many of the comedies were fashioned later on the French tradition, mainly Molière, again hailing back to the French influence brought back by the Rex and the Royals later their exile. Molière was one of the meridian comedic playwrights of the time, revolutionizing the way comedy was written and performed by combining Italian commedia dell'arte and neoclassical French comedy to create some of the longest lasting and most influential satiric comedies.^[54] Tragedies were similarly victorious in their sense of righting political power, especially poignant because of the recent Restoration of the Crown.^[55] They were also imitations of French tragedy, although the French had a larger distinction betwixt comedy and tragedy, whereas the English fudged the lines occasionally and put some comedic parts in their tragedies. Common forms of non-comedic plays were sentimental comedies as well as something that would later on be called tragédie bourgeoise, or domestic tragedy—that is, the tragedy of common life—were more popular in England because they appealed more than to English language sensibilities.^[56]

While theatre troupes were formerly ofttimes travelling, the thought of the national theatre gained support in the 18th century, inspired past Ludvig Holberg. The major promoter of the idea of the national theatre in Germany, and also of the Sturm und Drang poets, was Abel Seyler, the owner of the Hamburgische Entreprise and the Seyler Theatre Company.^[57]

Through the 19th century, the popular theatrical forms of Romanticism, melodrama, Victorian burlesque and the well-made plays of Scribe and Sardou gave fashion to the problem plays of Naturalism and Realism; the farces of Feydeau; Wagner'due south operatic Gesamtkunstwerk; musical theatre (including Gilbert and Sullivan's operas); F. C. Burnand's, W. S. Gilbert'southward and Oscar Wilde'south drawing-room comedies; Symbolism; proto-Expressionism in the belatedly works of August Strindberg and Henrik Ibsen;^[59] and Edwardian musical one-act.

These trends continued through the 20th century in the realism of Stanislavski and Lee Strasberg, the political theatre of Erwin Piscator and Bertolt Brecht, the and then-called Theatre of the Absurd of Samuel Beckett and Eugène Ionesco, American and British musicals, the commonage creations of companies of actors and directors such every bit Joan Littlewood's Theatre Workshop, experimental and postmodern theatre of Robert Wilson and Robert Lepage, the postcolonial theatre of August Wilson or Tomson Highway, and Augusto Boal's Theatre of the Oppressed.

Eastern theatrical traditions [edit]

The first class of Indian theatre was the Sanskrit theatre.^[60] It began after the development of Greek and Roman theatre and before the evolution of theatre in other parts of Asia.^[60] It emerged sometime between the 2nd century BCE and the 1st century CE and flourished betwixt the 1st century CE and the 10th, which was a period of relative peace in the history of Bharat during which hundreds of plays were written.^{[61] [41]} Japanese forms of Kabuki, Nō, and Kyōgen developed in the 17th century CE.^[62] Theatre in the medieval Islamic globe included boob theatre (which included hand puppets, shadow plays and marionette productions) and live passion plays known equally ta'ziya, where actors re-enact episodes from Muslim history. In particular, Shia Islamic plays revolved around the shaheed (martyrdom) of Ali'southward sons Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Secular plays were known as akhraja, recorded in medieval adab literature, though they were less common than puppetry and ta'ziya theatre.^[63]

Types [edit]

Drama [edit]

Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance.^[64] The term comes from a Greek give-and-take meaning "action", which is derived from the verb δράω, dráō, "to practise" or "to human activity". The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by actors on a stage earlier an audition, presupposes collaborative modes of production and a collective form of reception. The structure of dramatic texts, unlike other forms of literature, is directly influenced by this collaborative production and commonage reception.^[65] The early mod tragedy Hamlet (1601) by Shakespeare and the classical Athenian tragedy Oedipus Rex (c. 429 BCE) by Sophocles are amid the masterpieces of the art of drama.^[66] A modern example is Long Twenty-four hour period's Journey into Dark past Eugene O'Neill (1956).^[67]

Considered every bit a genre of poetry in full general, the dramatic style has been contrasted with the epic and the lyrical modes ever since Aristotle's Poetics (c. 335 BCE); the earliest work of dramatic theory.^[n] The use of "drama" in the narrow sense to designate a specific blazon of play dates from the 19th century. Drama in this sense refers to a play that is neither a one-act nor a tragedy—for example, Zola'due south Thérèse Raquin (1873) or Chekhov's Ivanov (1887). In Ancient Greece still, the word drama encompassed all theatrical plays, tragic, comic, or anything in between.

Drama is frequently combined with music and trip the light fantastic toe: the drama in opera is mostly sung throughout; musicals mostly include both spoken dialogue and songs; and some forms of drama take incidental music or musical accompaniment underscoring the dialogue (melodrama and Japanese Nō, for example).^[o] In certain periods of history (the ancient Roman and modern Romantic) some dramas accept been written to exist read rather than performed.^[p] In improvisation, the drama does not pre-exist the moment of performance; performers devise a dramatic script spontaneously before an audience.^[q]

Musical theatre [edit]

Music and theatre accept had a close relationship since ancient times—Athenian tragedy, for case, was a class of dance-drama that employed a chorus whose parts were sung (to the accompaniment of an aulos—an musical instrument comparable to the modern clarinet), equally were some of the actors' responses and their 'solo songs' (monodies).^[68] Mod musical theatre is a form of theatre that also combines music, spoken dialogue, and trip the light fantastic. It emerged from comic opera (especially Gilbert and Sullivan), variety, vaudeville, and music hall genres of the belatedly 19th and early on 20th century.^[69] Afterward the Edwardian musical comedy that began in the 1890s, the Princess Theatre musicals of the early on 20th century, and comedies in the 1920s and 1930s (such as the works of Rodgers and Hammerstein), with Oklahoma! (1943), musicals moved in a more than dramatic direction.^[r] Famous musicals over the subsequent decades included My Off-white Lady (1956), W Side Story (1957), The Fantasticks (1960), Pilus (1967), A Chorus Line (1975), Les Misérables (1980), Cats (1981), Into the Woods (1986), and The Phantom of the Opera (1986),^[seventy] as well as more contemporary hits including Rent (1994), The King of beasts King (1997), Wicked (2003), Hamilton (2015) and Frozen (2018).

Musical theatre may be produced on an intimate scale Off-Broadway, in regional theatres, and elsewhere, but it often includes spectacle. For example, Broadway and Westward Cease musicals often include lavish costumes and sets supported by multimillion-dollar budgets.

Comedy [edit]

Theatre productions that employ humour as a vehicle to tell a story qualify as comedies. This may include a modern farce such every bit Boeing Boeing or a classical play such as Every bit You Like It. Theatre expressing dour, controversial or taboo subject field matter in a deliberately humorous fashion is referred to every bit black comedy. Black Comedy tin have several genres like slapstick humour, night and sarcastic comedy.

Tragedy [edit]

Tragedy, and so, is an simulated of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude: in linguistic communication embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in split parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.

Aristotle'south phrase "several kinds being found in separate parts of the play" is a reference to the structural origins of drama. In it the spoken parts were written in the Attic dialect whereas the choral (recited or sung) ones in the Doric dialect, these discrepancies reflecting the differing religious origins and poetic metres of the parts that were fused into a new entity, the theatrical drama.

Tragedy refers to a specific tradition of drama that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of Western civilisation.^{[72] [73]} That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of cultural identity and historical continuity—"the Greeks and the Elizabethans, in one cultural form; Hellenes and Christians, in a common action," as Raymond Williams puts it.^[74] From its obscure origins in the theatres of Athens 2,500 years agone, from which there survives only a fraction of the piece of work of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, through its singular articulations in the works of Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, Racine, and Schiller, to the more contempo naturalistic tragedy of Strindberg, Beckett'south modernist meditations on decease, loss and suffering, and Müller's postmodernist reworkings of the tragic catechism, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change.^{[75] [76]} In the wake of Aristotle'southward Poetics (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make genre distinctions, whether at the calibration of poesy in general (where the tragic divides against epic and lyric) or at the scale of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to comedy). In the mod era, tragedy has as well been defined against drama, melodrama, the tragicomic, and epic theatre.^[southward]

Improvisation [edit]

Improvisation has been a consistent characteristic of theatre, with the Commedia dell'arte in the sixteenth century beingness recognised as the first improvisation class. Popularized by Nobel Prize Winner Dario Fo and troupes such as the Upright Citizens Brigade improvisational theatre continues to evolve with many different streams and philosophies. Keith Johnstone and Viola Spolin are recognized as the outset teachers of improvisation in modern times, with Johnstone exploring improvisation every bit an alternative to scripted theatre and Spolin and her successors exploring improvisation principally as a tool for developing dramatic piece of work or skills or as a form for situational comedy. Spolin besides became interested in how the process of learning improvisation was applicable to the development of human potential.^[77] Spolin'southward son, Paul Sills popularized improvisational theatre as a theatrical art form when he founded, every bit its first director, The Second Metropolis in Chicago.

Theories [edit]

Village feast with theatre functioning circa 1600

Having been an important function of human civilization for more 2,500 years, theatre has evolved a broad range of unlike theories and practices. Some are related to political or spiritual ideologies, while others are based purely on "artistic" concerns. Some processes focus on a story, some on theatre as event, and some on theatre every bit catalyst for social change. The classical Greek philosopher Aristotle, in his seminal treatise, Poetics (c. 335 BCE) is the earliest-surviving example and its arguments take influenced theories of theatre always since.^{[13] [14]} In it, he offers an account of what he calls "verse" (a term which in Greek literally means "making" and in this context includes drama—comedy, tragedy, and the satyr play—as well as lyric poetry, ballsy poetry, and the dithyramb). He examines its "first principles" and identifies its genres and basic elements; his assay of tragedy constitutes the core of the word.^[78]

Aristotle argues that tragedy consists of six qualitative parts, which are (in order of importance) mythos or "plot", ethos or "character", dianoia or "idea", lexis or "wording", melos or "song", and opsis or "spectacle".^{[79] [lxxx]} "Although Aristotle's Poetics is universally acknowledged in the Western critical tradition", Marvin Carlson explains, "nearly every detail about his seminal piece of work has aroused divergent opinions."^[81] Important theatre practitioners of the 20th century include Konstantin Stanislavski, Vsevolod Meyerhold, Jacques Copeau, Edward Gordon Craig, Bertolt Brecht, Antonin Artaud, Joan Littlewood, Peter Brook, Jerzy Grotowski, Augusto Boal, Eugenio Barba, Dario Fo, Viola Spolin, Keith Johnstone and Robert Wilson (manager).

Stanislavski treated the theatre as an art-grade that is democratic from literature and one in which the playwright's contribution should be respected as that of just 1 of an ensemble of creative artists.^{[82] [83] [84] [85] [t]} His innovative contribution to modernistic interim theory has remained at the cadre of mainstream western performance training for much of the final century.^{[86] [87] [88] [89] [xc]} That many of the precepts of his system of thespian preparation seem to be common sense and cocky-evident testifies to its hegemonic success.^[91] Actors frequently employ his basic concepts without knowing they do so.^[91] Thanks to its promotion and elaboration past acting teachers who were former students and the many translations of his theoretical writings, Stanislavski's 'system' acquired an unprecedented power to cantankerous cultural boundaries and adult an international reach, dominating debates virtually acting in Europe and the Us.^{[86] [92] [93] [94]} Many actors routinely equate his 'organisation' with the North American Method, although the latter'due south exclusively psychological techniques contrast sharply with Stanislavski's multivariant, holistic and psychophysical approach, which explores character and activeness both from the 'within out' and the 'outside in' and treats the role player's mind and body as parts of a continuum.^{[95] [96]}

Technical aspects [edit]

Theatre presupposes collaborative modes of product and a collective class of reception. The construction of dramatic texts, unlike other forms of literature, is direct influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception.^[65] The production of plays normally involves contributions from a playwright, director, a bandage of actors, and a technical production team that includes a scenic or ready designer, lighting designer, costume designer, sound designer, stage director, production manager and technical director. Depending on the product, this squad may too include a composer, dramaturg, video designer or fight director.

Stagecraft is a generic term referring to the technical aspects of theatrical, film, and video production. It includes, merely is not limited to, constructing and rigging scenery, hanging and focusing of lighting, design and procurement of costumes, makeup, procurement of props, stage direction, and recording and mixing of sound. Stagecraft is singled-out from the wider umbrella term of scenography. Considered a technical rather than an artistic field, it relates primarily to the practical implementation of a designer's artistic vision.

In its most bones course, stagecraft is managed by a single person (often the phase manager of a smaller product) who arranges all scenery, costumes, lighting, and sound, and organizes the bandage. At a more professional level, for example in mod Broadway houses, stagecraft is managed by hundreds of skilled carpenters, painters, electricians, stagehands, stitchers, wigmakers, and the like. This modern form of stagecraft is highly technical and specialized: it comprises many sub-disciplines and a vast trove of history and tradition. The majority of stagecraft lies betwixt these two extremes. Regional theatres and larger customs theatres volition generally have a technical director and a complement of designers, each of whom has a direct mitt in their respective designs.

Sub-categories and organization [edit]

At that place are many modern theatre movements which get about producing theatre in a multifariousness of ways. Theatrical enterprises vary enormously in composure and purpose. People who are involved vary from novices and hobbyists (in community theatre) to professionals (in Broadway and similar productions). Theatre tin exist performed with a shoestring budget or on a grand scale with multimillion-dollar budgets. This diversity manifests in the abundance of theatre sub-categories, which include:

• Broadway theatre and Westward End theatre
• Street theatre
• Community theatre
• Playback theatre
• Dinner theater
• Fringe theatre
• Off-Broadway and Off West End
• Off-Off-Broadway
• Regional theatre in the U.s.
• Touring theatre
• Summer stock theatre

Repertory companies [edit]

While almost modern theatre companies rehearse 1 piece of theatre at a fourth dimension, perform that piece for a set "run", retire the piece, and begin rehearsing a new show, repertory companies rehearse multiple shows at i time. These companies are able to perform these various pieces upon request and oft perform works for years before retiring them. Nigh dance companies operate on this repertory arrangement. The Majestic National Theatre in London performs on a repertory system.

Repertory theatre generally involves a group of similarly accomplished actors, and relies more than on the reputation of the grouping than on an individual star thespian. It also typically relies less on strict control by a managing director and less on adherence to theatrical conventions, since actors who have worked together in multiple productions can answer to each other without relying as much on convention or external direction.^[97]

Producing vs. presenting [edit]

In order to put on a piece of theatre, both a theatre company and a theatre venue are needed. When a theatre company is the sole company in residence at a theatre venue, this theatre (and its corresponding theatre company) are called a resident theatre or a producing theatre, considering the venue produces its own work. Other theatre companies, as well as dance companies, who do non take their ain theatre venue, perform at rental theatres or at presenting theatres. Both rental and presenting theatres accept no full-time resident companies. They do, nonetheless, sometimes have one or more than part-time resident companies, in add-on to other independent partner companies who arrange to use the space when available. A rental theatre allows the independent companies to seek out the space, while a presenting theatre seeks out the independent companies to back up their piece of work by presenting them on their phase.

Some performance groups perform in non-theatrical spaces. Such performances can take identify outside or inside, in a non-traditional performance space, and include street theatre, and site-specific theatre. Non-traditional venues can be used to create more immersive or meaningful environments for audiences. They can sometimes be modified more heavily than traditional theatre venues, or can accommodate different kinds of equipment, lighting and sets.^[98]

A touring visitor is an independent theatre or dance company that travels, oftentimes internationally, existence presented at a different theatre in each city.

Unions [edit]

At that place are many theatre unions including: Actors' Disinterestedness Association (for actors and stage managers), the Stage Directors and Choreographers Society (SDC), and the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees (IATSE, for designers and technicians). Many theatres require that their staff exist members of these organizations.

Come across too [edit]

• Acting
• Antitheatricality
• Black light theatre
• Culinary theatre
• Illusionistic tradition
• List of awards in theatre
• List of playwrights
• List of theatre personnel
• List of theatre festivals
• List of theatre directors
• Lists of theatres
• Functioning art
• Puppetry
• Reader's theatre
• Site-specific theatre
• Theatre consultant
• Theatre for development
• Theater (structure)
• Theatre technique
• Theatrical style
• Theatrical troupe
• World Theatre Day

Explanatory notes [edit]

1. ^ Originally spelled theatre and teatre. From around 1550 to 1700 or later, the most common spelling was theater. Between 1720 and 1750, theater was dropped in British English language, but was either retained or revived in American English (Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 2009, CD-ROM: ISBN 978-0-nineteen-956383-8). Contempo dictionaries of American English language list theatre as a less common variant, due east.g., Random House Webster'southward College Dictionary (1991); The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, fourth edition (2006); New Oxford American Lexicon, 3rd edition (2010); Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2011).
2. ^ Drawing on the "semiotics" of Charles Sanders Peirce, Pavis goes on to suggest that "the specificity of theatrical signs may lie in their power to use the three possible functions of signs: every bit icon (mimetically), as index (in the situation of enunciation), or every bit symbol (every bit a semiological system in the fictional mode). In issue, theatre makes the sources of the words visual and concrete: it indicates and incarnates a fictional globe by means of signs, such that by the end of the procedure of signification and symbolization the spectator has reconstructed a theoretical and aesthetic model that accounts for the dramatic universe."^[2]
3. ^ Chocolate-brown writes that ancient Greek drama "was substantially the creation of classical Athens: all the dramatists who were later regarded equally classics were agile at Athens in the 5th and fourth centuries BCE (the time of the Athenian republic), and all the surviving plays appointment from this period".^[three] "The dominant culture of Athens in the fifth century", Goldhill writes, "can be said to accept invented theatre".^[5]
4. ^ Goldhill argues that although activities that form "an integral part of the exercise of citizenship" (such as when "the Athenian denizen speaks in the Assembly, exercises in the gymnasium, sings at the symposium, or courts a boy") each take their "own regime of display and regulation," nevertheless the term "functioning" provides "a useful heuristic category to explore the connections and overlaps between these different areas of activeness".^[ix]
5. ^ Taxidou notes that "virtually scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically right".^[21]
6. ^ Cartledge writes that although Athenians of the fourth century judged Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides "as the nonpareils of the genre, and regularly honoured their plays with revivals, tragedy itself was non merely a fifth-century phenomenon, the product of a brusk-lived golden age. If non attaining the quality and stature of the 5th-century 'classics', original tragedies nonetheless continued to be written and produced and competed with in large numbers throughout the remaining life of the republic—and beyond it".^[24]
7. ^ We have 7 by Aeschylus, seven by Sophocles, and xviii by Euripides. In add-on, we as well have the Cyclops, a satyr play by Euripides. Some critics since the 17th century have argued that one of the tragedies that the classical tradition gives every bit Euripides'—Rhesus—is a quaternary-century play by an unknown author; mod scholarship agrees with the classical authorities and ascribes the play to Euripides; see Walton (1997, viii, xix). (This incertitude accounts for Brockett and Hildy'south figure of 31 tragedies.)
8. ^ The theory that Prometheus Jump was not written by Aeschylus adds a fourth, anonymous playwright to those whose work survives.
9. ^ Exceptions to this pattern were fabricated, as with Euripides' Alcestis in 438 BCE. There were also carve up competitions at the Urban center Dionysia for the performance of dithyrambs and, after 488–seven BCE, comedies.
10. ^ Rush Rehm offers the following argument as show that tragedy was not institutionalised until 501 BCE: "The specific cult honoured at the Metropolis Dionysia was that of Dionysus Eleuthereus, the god 'having to practise with Eleutherae', a boondocks on the border between Boeotia and Attica that had a sanctuary to Dionysus. At some signal Athens annexed Eleutherae—most probable after the overthrow of the Peisistratid tyranny in 510 and the democratic reforms of Cleisthenes in 508–07 BCE—and the cult-paradigm of Dionysus Eleuthereus was moved to its new home. Athenians re-enacted the incorporation of the god'due south cult every year in a preliminary rite to the Urban center Dionysia. On the 24-hour interval before the festival proper, the cult-statue was removed from the temple well-nigh the theatre of Dionysus and taken to a temple on the road to Eleutherae. That evening, after sacrifice and hymns, a torchlight procession carried the statue back to the temple, a symbolic re-creation of the god'southward arrival into Athens, as well as a reminder of the inclusion of the Boeotian town into Attica. As the name Eleutherae is extremely close to eleutheria, 'freedom', Athenians probably felt that the new cult was particularly advisable for celebrating their own political liberation and autonomous reforms."^[33]
11. ^ Jean-Pierre Vernant argues that in The Persians Aeschylus substitutes for the usual temporal distance between the audience and the age of heroes a spatial altitude betwixt the Western audience and the Eastern Farsi civilization. This substitution, he suggests, produces a similar event: "The 'historic' events evoked by the chorus, recounted by the messenger and interpreted by Darius' ghost are presented on phase in a legendary atmosphere. The low-cal that the tragedy sheds upon them is not that in which the political happenings of the 24-hour interval are normally seen; it reaches the Athenian theatre refracted from a afar earth of elsewhere, making what is absent seem present and visible on the stage"; Vernant and Vidal-Naquet (1988, 245).
12. ^ Aristotle, Poetics, line 1449a: "One-act, every bit we have said, is a representation of inferior people, not indeed in the full sense of the discussion bad, simply the laughable is a species of the base or ugly. It consists in some blunder or ugliness that does not crusade pain or disaster, an obvious example being the comic mask which is ugly and distorted but non painful'."
13. ^ The literal pregnant of abhinaya is "to bear frontwards".
14. ^ Francis Fergusson writes that "a drama, as distinguished from a lyric, is not primarily a composition in the verbal medium; the words consequence, as one might put it, from the underlying construction of incident and graphic symbol. As Aristotle remarks, 'the poet, or "maker" should be the maker of plots rather than of verses; since he is a poet considering he imiates, and what he imitates are actions'" (1949, 8).
15. ^ Meet the entries for "opera", "musical theatre, American", "melodrama" and "Nō" in Banham 1998
16. ^ While there is some dispute amidst theatre historians, information technology is probable that the plays by the Roman Seneca were not intended to be performed. Manfred past Byron is a skilful example of a "dramatic poem." See the entries on "Seneca" and "Byron (George George)" in Banham 1998.
17. ^ Some forms of improvisation, notably the Commedia dell'arte, improvise on the footing of 'lazzi' or rough outlines of scenic action (see Gordon 1983 and Duchartre 1966). All forms of improvisation take their cue from their immediate response to 1 another, their characters' situations (which are sometimes established in accelerate), and, oft, their interaction with the audition. The classic formulations of improvisation in the theatre originated with Joan Littlewood and Keith Johnstone in the UK and Viola Spolin in the US; meet Johnstone 2007 and Spolin 1999.
18. ^ The get-go "Edwardian musical comedy" is normally considered to be In Town (1892), fifty-fifty though it was produced eight years before the beginning of the Edwardian era; see, for case, Fraser Charlton, "What are EdMusComs?" (FrasrWeb 2007, accessed May 12, 2011).
19. ^ Run across Carlson 1993, Pfister 2000, Elam 1980, and Taxidou 2004. Drama, in the narrow sense, cuts beyond the traditional partitioning betwixt one-act and tragedy in an anti- or a-generic deterritorialization from the mid-19th century onwards. Both Bertolt Brecht and Augusto Boal define their epic theatre projects (Non-Aristotelian drama and Theatre of the Oppressed respectively) against models of tragedy. Taxidou, even so, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation.^[76]
20. ^ In 1902, Stanislavski wrote that "the author writes on paper. The actor writes with his body on the stage" and that the "score of an opera is non the opera itself and the script of a play is non drama until both are fabricated flesh and blood on phase"; quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 124).

Citations [edit]

1. ^ Carlson 1986, p. 36.
2. ^ ^{a b} Pavis 1998, pp. 345–346.
3. ^ ^{a b c} Brown 1998, p. 441.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Cartledge 1997, pp. 3–5.
5. ^ ^{a b c d} Goldhill 1997, p. 54.
6. ^ Cartledge 1997, pp. 3, 6.
7. ^ Goldhill 2004, pp. 20–xx.
8. ^ Rehm 1992, p. 3.
9. ^ Goldhill 2004, p. 1.
10. ^ Pelling 2005, p. 83.
11. ^ Goldhill 2004, p. 25.
12. ^ Pelling 2005, pp. 83–84.
13. ^ ^{a b} Dukore 1974, p. 31.
14. ^ ^{a b} Janko 1987, p. ix.
15. ^ Ward 2007, p. 1.
16. ^ "Introduction to Theatre – Aboriginal Greek Theatre". novaonline.nvcc.edu.
17. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 15–nineteen.
18. ^ "Theatre | Chambers Lexicon of Globe History – Credo Reference". search.credoreference.com.
19. ^ Ley 2007, p. 206.
20. ^ Styan 2000, p. 140.
21. ^ Taxidou 2004, p. 104.
22. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 32–33.
23. ^ Brown 1998, p. 444.
24. ^ Cartledge 1997, p. 33.
25. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, p. five.
26. ^ Kovacs 2005, p. 379.
27. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, p. 15.
28. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 13–15.
29. ^ Dark-brown 1998, pp. 441–447.
30. ^ ^{a b c d} Brown 1998, p. 442.
31. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. fifteen–17.
32. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. xiii, xv.
33. ^ Rehm 1992, p. fifteen.
34. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. fifteen–16.
35. ^ Webster 1967.
36. ^ Beacham 1996, p. 2.
37. ^ Beacham 1996, p. 3.
38. ^ Gassner & Allen 1992, p. 93.
39. ^ ^{a b c d} Brandon 1993, p. xvii.
40. ^ Brandon 1997, pp. 516–517.
41. ^ ^{a b c} Richmond 1998, p. 516.
42. ^ ^{a b c d east} Richmond 1998, p. 517.
43. ^ ^{a b} Richmond 1998, p. 518.
44. ^ Don Rubin; Chua Soo Pong; Ravi Chaturvedi; et al. (2001). The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre: Asia/Pacific. Taylor & Francis. pp. 184–186. ISBN978-0-415-26087-9.
45. ^ "PENGETAHUAN TEATER" (PDF), Kemdikbud
46. ^ ""Wayang puppet theatre", Inscribed in 2008 (iii.COM) on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (originally proclaimed in 2003)". UNESCO. Retrieved Oct 10, 2014.
47. ^ James R. Brandon (2009). Theatre in Southeast Asia. Harvard University Printing. pp. 143–145, 352–353. ISBN978-0-674-02874-half-dozen.
48. ^ Kuritz 1988, p. 305.
49. ^ ^{a b} "London's ten oldest theatres". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on Jan 11, 2022. Retrieved April half dozen, 2020.
50. ^ "From pandemics to puritans: when theatre close downwards through history and how it recovered". The Stage.co.uk . Retrieved December 17, 2020.
51. ^ "The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing for their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses". Early English Books Online. January 24, 1643.
52. ^ Robinson, Scott R. "The English Theatre, 1642–1800". Scott R. Robinson Home. CWU Department of Theatre Arts. Archived from the original on May ii, 2012. Retrieved Baronial 6, 2012.
53. ^ "Women's Lives Surrounding Late 18th Century Theatre". English 3621 Writing by Women . Retrieved August 7, 2012.
54. ^ Bermel, Albert. "Moliere – French Dramatist". Discover French republic. Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Retrieved August 7, 2012.
55. ^ Blackness 2010, pp. 533–535.
56. ^ Matthew, Brander. "The Drama in the 18th Century". Moonstruch Drama Bookstore . Retrieved August 7, 2012.
57. ^ Wilhelm Kosch, "Seyler, Abel", in Lexicon of German Biography, eds. Walther Killy and Rudolf Vierhaus, Vol. nine, Walter de Gruyter editor, 2005, ISBN iii-11-096629-8, p. 308.
58. ^ "7028 end. Tartu Saksa Teatrihoone Vanemuise 45a, 1914-1918.a." Kultuurimälestiste register (in Estonian). Retrieved June 23, 2020.
59. ^ Brockett & Hildy 2003, pp. 293–426.
60. ^ ^{a b} Richmond, Swann & Zarrilli 1993, p. 12.
61. ^ Brandon 1997, p. 70.
62. ^ Deal 2007, p. 276.
63. ^ Moreh 1986, pp. 565–601.
64. ^ Elam 1980, p. 98.
65. ^ ^{a b} Pfister 2000, p. xi.
66. ^ Fergusson 1968, pp. 2–three.
67. ^ Burt 2008, pp. 30–35.
68. ^ Rehm 1992, 150n7.
69. ^ Jones 2003, pp. 4–11.
70. ^ Kenrick, John (2003). "History of Stage Musicals". Retrieved May 26, 2009.
71. ^ S.H. Butcher, [1], 2011
72. ^ Banham 1998, p. 1118.
73. ^ Williams 1966, pp. 14–xvi.
74. ^ Williams 1966, p. 16.
75. ^ Williams 1966, pp. 13–84.
76. ^ ^{a b} Taxidou 2004, pp. 193–209.
77. ^ Gordon 2006, p. 194.
78. ^ Aristotle Poetics 1447a13 (1987, 1).
79. ^ Carlson 1993, p. nineteen.
80. ^ Janko 1987, pp. xx, 7–10.
81. ^ Carlson 1993, p. 16.
82. ^ Benedetti 1999, pp. 124, 202.
83. ^ Benedetti 2008, p. 6.
84. ^ Carnicke 1998, p. 162.
85. ^ Gauss 1999, p. 2.
86. ^ ^{a b} Banham 1998, p. 1032.
87. ^ Carnicke 1998, p. i.
88. ^ Counsell 1996, pp. 24–25.
89. ^ Gordon 2006, pp. 37–xl.
90. ^ Leach 2004, p. 29.
91. ^ ^{a b} Counsell 1996, p. 25.
92. ^ Carnicke 1998, pp. ane, 167.
93. ^ Counsell 1996, p. 24.
94. ^ Milling & Ley 2001, p. 1.
95. ^ Benedetti 2005, pp. 147–148.
96. ^ Carnicke 1998, pp. 1, 8.
97. ^ Peterson 1982.
98. ^ Alice T. Carter, "Not-traditional venues can inspire art, or just peachy performances Archived 2010-09-03 at the Wayback Machine", Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, July seven, 2008. Retrieved February 12, 2011.

Full general sources [edit]

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• Beacham, Richard C. (1996). The Roman Theatre and Its Audition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-77914-iii.
• Benedetti, Jean (1999) [1988]. Stanislavski: His Life and Fine art (Revised ed.). London: Methuen. ISBN0-413-52520-i.
• Benedetti, Jean (2005). The Art of the Actor: The Essential History of Acting, From Classical Times to the Present Twenty-four hour period. London: Methuen. ISBN0-413-77336-ane.
• Benedetti, Jean (2008). "Stanislavski on Stage". In Dacre, Kathy; Fryer, Paul (eds.). Stanislavski on Stage. Sidcup, Kent: Stanislavski Centre Rose Bruford College. pp. six–9. ISBN1-903454-01-8.
• Blackness, Joseph, ed. (2010) [2006]. The Broadview Anthology of British Literature: Volume three: The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century. Canada: Broadview Press. ISBN978-1-55111-611-2.
• Brandon, James R. (1993) [1981]. "Introduction". In Baumer, Rachel Van K.; Brandon, James R. (eds.). Sanskrit Theatre in Performance. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xvii–xx. ISBN978-81-208-0772-three.
• Brandon, James R., ed. (1997). The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre (2nd, revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Academy Press. ISBN978-0-521-58822-5.
• Brockett, Oscar G. & Hildy, Franklin J. (2003). History of the Theatre (Ninth, International ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN0-205-41050-2.
• Brown, Andrew (1998). "Greece, Ancient". In Banham, Martin (ed.). The Cambridge Guide to Theatre (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Printing. pp. 441–447. ISBN0-521-43437-viii.
• Burt, Daniel S. (2008). The Drama 100: A Ranking of the Greatest Plays of All Time . New York: Facts on File. ISBN978-0-8160-6073-iii.
• Carlson, Marvin (Fall 1986). "Psychic Polyphony". Periodical of Dramatic Theory and Criticism: 35–47.
• Carlson, Marvin (1993). Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present (Expanded ed.). Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. ISBN0-8014-8154-half-dozen.
• Carnicke, Sharon Marie (1998). Stanislavsky in Focus. Russian Theatre Annal series. London: Harwood Bookish Publishers. ISBN90-5755-070-9.
• Cartledge, Paul (1997). "'Deep Plays': Theatre as Process in Greek Civic Life". In Easterling, P. E. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge Companions to Literature series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. three–35. ISBN0-521-42351-1.
• Counsell, Colin (1996). Signs of Performance: An Introduction to Twentieth-Century Theatre. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-10643-6.
• Deal, William E. (2007). Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modernistic Japan. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-xix-533126-4.
• Duchartre, Pierre Louis (1966) [1929]. The Italian Comedy: The Improvisation Scenarios Lives Attributes Portraits and Masks of the Illustrious Characters of the Commedia dell'Arte . Translated by Randolph T. Weaver. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN0-486-21679-9.
• Dukore, Bernard F., ed. (1974). Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski. Florence, KY: Heinle & Heinle. ISBN978-0-03-091152-1.
• Elam, Keir (1980). The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents series. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-03984-0.
• Fergusson, Francis (1968) [1949]. The Idea of a Theater: A Study of X Plays, The Art of Drama in a Changing Perspective . Princeton, NJ: Princeton Academy Printing. ISBN0-691-01288-1.
• Gassner, John & Allen, Ralph Yard. (1992) [1964]. Theatre and Drama in the Making. New York: Applause Books. ISBN1-55783-073-8.
• Gauss, Rebecca B. (1999). Lear's Daughters: The Studios of the Moscow Art Theatre 1905–1927. American University Studies, Ser. 26 Theatre Arts. Vol. 29. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN978-0-8204-4155-9.
• Goldhill, Simon (1997). "The Audience of Athenian Tragedy". In Easterling, P. E. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge Companions to Literature serial. Cambridge: Cambridge Academy Press. pp. 54–68. ISBN0-521-42351-i.
• Goldhill, Simon (2004). "Programme Notes". In Goldhill, Simon; Osborne, Robin (eds.). Operation Culture and Athenian Democracy (New ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Printing. pp. one–29. ISBN978-0-521-60431-four.
• Gordon, Mel (1983). Lazzi: The Comic Routines of the Commedia dell'Arte. New York: Performing Arts Journal. ISBN0-933826-69-9.
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• Kuritz, Paul (1988). The Making of Theatre History. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-13-547861-5.
• Leach, Robert (2004). Makers of Modern Theatre: An Introduction. London: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-31241-seven.
• Ley, Graham (2007). The Theatricality of Greek Tragedy: Playing Infinite and Chorus. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Printing. ISBN978-0-226-47757-2.
• Milling, Jane; Ley, Graham (2001). Modern Theories of Performance: From Stanislavski to Boal. Basingstoke, Hampshire, and New York: Palgrave. ISBN978-0-333-77542-4.
• Moreh, Shmuel (1986). "Alive Theater in Medieval Islam". In Sharon, Moshe (ed.). Studies in Islamic History and Civilization in Honour of Professor David Ayalon. Cana, Leiden: Brill. pp. 565–601. ISBN965-264-014-10.
• Pavis, Patrice (1998). Dictionary of the Theatre: Terms, Concepts, and Analysis . Translated by Christine Shantz. Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. ISBN978-0-8020-8163-half-dozen.
• Pelling, Christopher (2005). "Tragedy, Rhetoric, and Performance Civilisation". In Gregory, Justina (ed.). A Companion to Greek Tragedy. Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World series. Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 83–102. ISBNone-4051-7549-iv.
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• Richmond, Farley (1998) [1995]. "India". In Banham, Martin (ed.). The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 516–525. ISBN0-521-43437-8.
• Richmond, Farley P.; Swann, Darius Fifty. & Zarrilli, Phillip B., eds. (1993). Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN978-0-8248-1322-2.
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• Williams, Raymond (1966). Mod Tragedy. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN0-7011-1260-3.

Further reading [edit]

• Aston, Elaine, and George Savona. 1991. Theatre as Sign-System: A Semiotics of Text and Performance. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-04932-0.
• Benjamin, Walter. 1928. The Origin of German language Tragic Drama. Trans. John Osborne. London and New York: Verso, 1998. ISBN 1-85984-899-0.
• Brown, John Russell. 1997. What is Theatre?: An Introduction and Exploration. Boston and Oxford: Focal P. ISBN 978-0-240-80232-9.
• Bryant, Jye (2018). Writing & Staging A New Musical: A Handbook. Kindle Direct Publishing. ISBN 9781730897412.
• Carnicke, Sharon Marie. 2000. "Stanislavsky's System: Pathways for the Actor". In Hodge (2000, eleven–36).
• Dacre, Kathy, and Paul Fryer, eds. 2008. Stanislavski on Stage. Sidcup, Kent: Stanislavski Eye Rose Bruford College. ISBN i-903454-01-eight.
• Deleuze, Gilles and Félix Guattari. 1972. Anti-Œdipus. Trans. Robert Hurley, Mark Seem and Helen R. Lane. London and New York: Continuum, 2004. Vol. i. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. ISBN 0-416-72060-ix.
• Felski, Rita, ed. 2008. Rethinking Tragedy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Upwards. ISBN 0-8018-8740-2.
• Harrison, Martin. 1998. The Language of Theatre. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0878300877.
• Hartnoll, Phyllis, ed. 1983. The Oxford Companion to the Theatre. fourth ed. Oxford: Oxford Up. ISBN 978-0-xix-211546-ane.
• Hodge, Alison, ed. 2000. Twentieth-Century Actor Grooming. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-19452-v.
• Leach, Robert (1989). Vsevolod Meyerhold. Directors in Perspective serial. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-31843-3.
• Leach, Robert, and Victor Borovsky, eds. 1999. A History of Russian Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge Up. ISBN 978-0-521-03435-7.
• Meyer-Dinkgräfe, Daniel. 2001. Approaches to Acting: Past and Present. London and New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-7879-five.
• Meyerhold, Vsevolod. 1991. Meyerhold on Theatre. Ed. and trans. Edward Braun. Revised edition. London: Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-38790-5.
• Mitter, Shomit. 1992. Systems of Rehearsal: Stanislavsky, Brecht, Grotowski and Brook. London and NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-06784-3.
• O'Brien, Nick. 2010. Stanislavski In Practise. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-56843-2.
• Rayner, Alice. 1994. To Act, To Practise, To Perform: Drama and the Phenomenology of Activity. Theater: Theory/Text/Performance Ser. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-10537-3.
• Roach, Joseph R. 1985. The Actor'south Passion: Studies in the Scientific discipline of Interim. Theater:Theory/Text/Performance Ser. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P. ISBN 978-0-472-08244-5.
• Speirs, Ronald, trans. 1999. The Birth of Tragedy and Other Writings. Past Friedrich Nietzsche. Ed. Raymond Geuss and Ronald Speirs. Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy ser. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-63987-five.

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Theatre.

• Theatre Archive Project (UK) British Library & University of Sheffield.
• University of Bristol Theatre Collection
• Music Hall and Theatre History of Great britain and Ireland

bakerwiter1987.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre

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